Development and building trade capacity
Sustainable development and women’s empowerment: the challenges and opportunities of digitalization
This study looks at digitalization from a gender and development perspective. It investigates which countries and within countries which segments of the population have been able thus far to benefit from the dynamism provided by digitalization especially through e-commerce and technological advances in agriculture. The study points to digital divides between developed and developing countries as well as to other divides linked to gender age and socioeconomic factors that determine individuals’ ability to have access to digital technologies and use them in a productive and beneficial manner. The analysis zooms in on the potential opportunities that digitalization provides to women especially in the developing world and on the obstacles they face to benefit from it. The study makes a distinction between having access to technology using it and using it in a productive manner and highlights the link with gender and other gaps in society and the economy. In the conclusions the study puts forward some suggestions to help digitalization provide shared benefits and leave no one behind.
Lived experience of women entrepreneurial exporters in a developing country context
Entrepreneurs operate within a broad ecosystem which enables them to access different types of support when needed – from financial and logistical to emotional. The ability to tap into available resources in an entrepreneurial ecosystem is particularly important for those embarking on an internationalization strategy such as exporting given its many complexities. However many women entrepreneurs both aspiring and active exporters feel discriminated against by government and private-sector actors in the ecosystem which constrains their internationalization efforts.
Trade negotiation dialogue and capacity building: applying the PXA Framework
The increasing trend of the inclusion of gender equality and women’s economic empowerment concerns in the negotiation of trade agreements creates a need to strengthen informed dialogue between the public and private sectors. Trade negotiators are often not aware of the specific barriers faced by women in their various economic roles and as a result face a challenge in promoting provisions that will successfully address these barriers. At the same time the private sector is often not equipped to communicate its needs to a policy audience and identify the ways in which it can inform the negotiation processes with its information and experience. This gap can be bridged with the help of an institutionalized and structured dialogue between public and private and international organizations can provide the required institutional and structural support. The public–private coordination and exchange can also help countries – particularly developing countries – overcome the capacity gap in trade negotiations as they can benefit from the inputs coming from the private sector and experts.
Foreword
Making trade work for women goes to the core of the WTO’s purpose because women’s economic empowerment is central to achieving the WTO’s founding objectives of raising living standards creating jobs and promoting sustainable development.
The role of regional governance on shaping trade and gender nexus policy in the pandemic and recovery: Asia-Pacific practices and perspectives
The COVID-19 pandemic caused challenges to public health systems and disruptions in international trade and society. This chapter will highlight the role of regional governance in complementing international governance in responding to global crises and addressing gender issues. The discussion concentrates on the Asia-Pacific region including responses by individual economies and the regional organizations the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The findings show that policy measures responding to the pandemic are progressing dynamically. While policies are primarily concerned with the strength of public health systems and the stability of economic and social situations initially they will focus on answering specific groups’ needs including women’s challenges at a later stage. Besides comparing the actions between ASEAN and APEC indicates the difference in the governance approach to the trade and gender nexus; that is the human rights-based versus the economic and technical cooperation (ECOTECH)-oriented approaches. Accordingly this chapter argues that policy priority and institutional structure are crucial elements behind the diversity of regional governance on gender issues in the Asia Pacific. Finally it suggests that the experiences of Asia-Pacific regional governance facilitate the understanding of dimensional and cross-cutting gender issues and provide insights into international governance of the trade and gender nexus.
Agradecimientos / Descargo de responsabilidad
La presente publicación es fruto del esfuerzo conjunto del Banco Mundial y de la OMC. Fue escrita y coordinada por Martin Roy de la OMC y Pierre Sauvé del Banco Mundial bajo la supervisión de la Directora General Adjunta Anabel González y Xiaolin Chai Directora de la División de Comercio de Servicios e Inversión en la OMC y Mona Haddad Directora Mundial de Comercio Inversión y Competitividad y Sebastien Dessus Gerente de Prácticas Comercio e Integración Regional en el Banco Mundial. La publicación fue editada por Ross McRae y Anthony Martin de la OMC.
Résumé analytique
La présente publication conjointe de la Banque mondiale et de l'OMC repose sur une vision partagée selon laquelle les changements structurels associés à une économie mondiale plus centrée sur les services et sur la contribution essentielle que l'expansion du commerce et de l'investissement dans ce secteur peuvent apporter à la croissance économique et au développement justifient qu'une plus grande attention soit portée aux politiques et que la coopération internationale soit redynamisée. Un objectif important de cette publication et une raison essentielle de son caractère conjoint sont de rappeler les avantages qu'il y a à faire progresser l'ordre du jour des négociations sur le commerce des services et les coûts d'opportunité qui en résulteraient en cas d'inaction. Il s'agit donc de stimuler la réflexion sur les meilleurs moyens de mobiliser un soutien supplémentaire – et une aide de meilleure qualité – qui permettent aux économies en développement et aux économies les moins avancées de mettre en oeuvre des réformes du secteur des services afin de tirer aussi parti de l'expansion du commerce et de l'investissement dans ce secteur pour favoriser leur développement.
Conclusion
La composition du commerce mondial des services a profondément changé au cours des dernières années période pendant laquelle les économies en développement ont enregistré des gains importants à l'exportation malgré l'impact sévère de la pandémie de COVID-19. Ces gains concernent une multitude de services non traditionnels à forte valeur ajoutée qui sont plus faciles à fournir aujourd'hui grâce aux moyens numériques.
Conclusión
La composición del comercio mundial de servicios ha cambiado notablemente en los últimos años y se ha observado que en ese período las economías en desarrollo registraron un importante aumento de las exportaciones en el sector de los servicios a pesar de los graves efectos de la pandemia de COVID-19. Ese aumento abarca un conjunto de servicios no tradicionales de alto valor añadido que pueden prestarse hoy en día más fácilmente a través de medios digitales.
Remerciements / Avertissement
La présente publication est le fruit d'une collaboration entre la Banque mondiale et l'OMC. Elle a été corédigée et coordonnée par Martin Roy de l'OMC et Pierre Sauvé de la Banque mondiale sous la supervision de la Directrice générale adjointe Anabel Gonzalez et de Xiaolin Chai Directrice de la Division du commerce des services et de l'investissement de l'OMC ainsi que de Mona Haddad Directrice mondiale pour le commerce l'investissement et la compétitivité et de Sébastien Dessus Responsable Pratique commerce et intégration régionale de la Banque mondiale. Le texte a été mis au point par Ross McRae et Anthony Martin de l'OMC.
Resumen
Esta publicación conjunta del Banco Mundial y la OMC está motivada por la opinión compartida de que es necesario prestar mayor atención a las políticas y renovar la cooperación internacional en vista de los cambios estructurales relacionados con una economía mundial más centrada en los servicios y la contribución fundamental que el aumento del comercio y la inversión en el sector de los servicios puede hacer al crecimiento económico y el desarrollo. Un objetivo importante de la publicación y una razón fundamental de su naturaleza conjunta es recordar los beneficios de hacer avanzar el programa de negociación sobre el comercio de servicios y los costos de oportunidad de no hacerlo. En consecuencia la publicación tiene por objeto fomentar la reflexión sobre la mejor manera de movilizar ayuda adicional —y mejor asistencia— para que las economías en desarrollo y las menos adelantadas apliquen las reformas del sector de los servicios y obtengan los beneficios para el desarrollo derivados de la expansión del comercio y la inversión en servicios.
Avant-propos
Les services sont devenus la force motrice qui détermine le paysage économique des pays de tout niveau de développement. Ils constituent la majeure partie de l'activité économique mondiale avec plus des deux tiers du PIB emploient la plupart des travailleurs et sont la source de la plupart des créations d'emplois notamment chez les femmes et les jeunes. Parallèlement le commerce des services est devenu un élément essentiel des stratégies de croissance apparaissant comme la composante la plus dynamique du commerce mondial au cours de la période récente et créant des emplois à plus forte valeur ajoutée.
Prólogo
Los servicios se han convertido en la fuerza impulsora que está configurando el panorama económico de los países en todos los niveles de desarrollo. Representan la mayor proporción de la actividad económica mundial al generar más de dos tercios del PIB emplean a la mayoría de los trabajadores y son la fuente más grande de creación de empleo especialmente para las mujeres y los jóvenes. Al mismo tiempo el comercio de servicios se ha convertido en un elemento clave de las estrategias de crecimiento al transformarse en el componente más dinámico del comercio mundial en los últimos tiempos y al crear puestos de trabajo de mayor valor añadido.
Acknowledgments / Disclaimer
This publication received guidance from Deputy Director-General Xiangchen Zhang and from Yuvan Beedjadhur of the Office of the Director-General. Preparation of the publication was a joint effort across several divisions of the WTO.
Gender equality, trade and the World Trade Organization
Scientific research reaffirms the importance of making trade gender inclusive and demonstrates that accelerating the gender responsiveness of trade policies improves gender equality in trade supports poverty reduction and fosters sustainable growth.
Entrepreneurial responses to COVID-19: gender, digitalization and adaptive capacity
Women entrepreneurs were hit disproportionately hard by the COVID-19 pandemic as their firms are generally younger smaller and concentrated in industry sectors affected the most by economic shutdowns. However very little research has addressed the ways in which women-led firms navigated these challenges. In this study we investigate the ways in which women entrepreneurs adapted to the business repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic. In particular we focus on the implementation of digital tools as a viable instrument for building adaptive capacity.
Assessing the potential of trade policy reform for closing gender wage gaps
On average female workers receive a lower wage than male workers. In this chapter we analyse the potential contribution of trade policy reform to a reduction in this gender wage gap. We first establish four stylized facts: (i) tariffs are on average higher in more female labour-intensive sectors; (ii) trade costs are on average larger in female labour-intensive services than in goods; (iii) services trade restrictiveness is higher in more female labour-intensive services; (iv) trade costs associated with the need for face-to-face interaction are larger in female labour-intensive sectors.
Gender mainstreaming in trade agreements: “A Potemkin Façade”?
The distributional outcomes of trade agreements have historically been uneven creating both “losers” and “winners” and benefiting certain stakeholders while leaving others without benefits or even with negative repercussions. In particular distributional outcomes can vary between women and men since they play different roles in society markets and economies and they enjoy different opportunities as well. At times and sometimes by their very nature trade agreements can restrict opportunities for women and further increase the gender divide. But in recent years there has been a drastic upsurge in the number of countries that are incorporating commitments on gender equality in their trade agreements.
Annex
This annex provides a comprehensive but non-exhaustive list of quality infrastructure elements for green hydrogen (GH2) that should be implemented according to an Expert Survey for IRENA’s ongoing project “Quality Infrastructure for Green Hydrogen: technical standards and quality control for the production and trade of renewable hydrogen”.
Acknowledgements/Abbreviations
This publication has been prepared under the overall guidance of Aik Hoe Lim of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and Roland Roesch of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).
Mapping supply chain issues from a trade perspective
Green hydrogen has a number of uses. It can be used directly as an energy carrier and chemical input in multiple end-use applications. It can also be combined with a sustainable carbon source or with nitrogen to produce derivative compounds such as methanol or ammonia which can be used as feedstock for chemical production (e.g. plastics and fertilizers) or as sustainable fuels.
Foreword
The WTO’s 13th Ministerial Conference (MC13) which took place earlier this year in Abu Dhabi reaffirmed the international community’s shared commitment to promote inclusive and sustainable development through trade. Aid for Trade remains a critical element of our collective commitment to ensuring that the benefits of trade are shared more widely particularly with developing economies and least-developed countries (LDCs).
Conclusion
The clean energy transition is critical to achieve net zero goals and is a key element of most economies’ nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement to keep global warming under a 1.5° Celsius threshold. The clean energy transition also has trade integration potential as it helps to advance industrial development and addresses capacity constraints in energy generation capacity.
Acknowledgements
This publication was prepared by Visvanathan Subramaniam (Economic Affairs Officer WTO) and Michael Roberts (Head of the Aid for Trade Unit of the Development Division WTO) under the supervision of Deputy Director-General Xiangchen Zhang and Taufiqur Rahman Director of the Development Division. The publication was edited and reviewed by Anthony Martin and Helen Swain of the Information and External Relations Division.
Overview of the Aid for Trade initiative
The Aid for Trade initiative led by the WTO grew out of the 2005 WTO Hong Kong Ministerial Conference. Its aim is to help developing economies integrate into world trade by mobilizing additional development support to address supply-side capacity and trade-related infrastructure constraints in these economies. In 2006 the Task Force on Aid for Trade was constituted by the WTO Director-General to report to the General Council with recommendations on how to operationalize Aid for Trade.
Opportunities for trade integration in clean energy value chains
Nearly 40 per cent of anthropogenic GHG emissions are caused by burning fossil fuels to produce electricity (IEA 2022b). Decarbonizing electricity generation is a critical step toward achieving net zero goals. Target 7.2 of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) calls for a substantial increase in the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix by 2030 (UN General Assembly 2015).
Executive summary
Energy generation infrastructure has long been identified by Aid for Trade stakeholders as requiring additional predictable and sustainable financing to enable developing economies and LDCs to participate more fully in international trade. The energy sector is one of the largest recipients of Aid for Trade support accounting for nearly 25 per cent of all disbursements (US$ 116 billion) over the 2010-21 period.
Introduction
Aid for Trade seeks to enable developing economies and in particular least-developed countries (LDCs) to use trade as a means of fostering economic growth sustainable development and poverty reduction. It promotes the integration of developing economies especially LDCs into the multilateral trading system and aims to galvanize support to build supply-side capacity and trade-related infrastructure in these economies to improve trade performance.
Acknowledgements
This publication is the result of a joint effort of the OECD and the WTO and was prepared under the overall guidance of Michael Roberts (Head Aid for Trade Unit Development Division WTO) and Olivier Cattaneo (Head of Unit Architecture and Analysis Development Co-operation Directorate OECD). WTO Deputy Director-General Xiangchen Zhang Taufiqur Rahman (Director of the Development Division WTO) and María del Pilar Garrido Gonzalo (Director for Development Co-operation OECD) supervised the work. The publication was edited and reviewed by Ross McRae and Anthony Martin of the Information and External Relations Division of the WTO and by Henri-Bernard Solignac Lecomte Head of Communications of the OECD Development Cluster. Additional contributions were provided by Masato Hayashikawa (Development Co-operation Directorate OECD).
Acknowledgements
The World Trade Report 2024 was prepared under the general responsibility and guidance of Johanna Hill WTO Deputy Director-General and Ralph Ossa Director of the Economic Research and Statistics Division. Director-General Ngozi Okonjo Iweala Chief of Staff Bright Okogu and Trineesh Biswas from the Office of the Director-General provided valuable advice and guidance.
Foreword by the WTO Director-General
The mission of the World Trade Organization as set out in the preamble to its founding Marrakesh Agreement is to use trade as a means to raise living standards create jobs and promote sustainable development. As we mark the WTO’s 30th anniversary it is clear that members have used the open and predictable global economy anchored in WTO rules and norms to accelerate growth and development with enormous positive impacts for human well-being. At the same time many people and places have not shared adequately in these gains.
Inclusive trade and international cooperation
This chapter discusses how the multilateral trading system has helped some economies to take advantage of trade to further their development but has not succeeded in helping others to harness trade for growth and considers what could be done to ensure that the WTO leaves no economy behind. It also examines the effect of the WTO on how the benefits of trade are shared out within economies and discusses how the WTO and trade can be made more inclusive for people and firms. Finally the chapter outlines the areas in which work at the WTO could be coordinated with work at other international organizations to help make trade more inclusive such as by enhancing infrastructure and digital connectivity to bridge the digital gap or by ensuring coherence between trade and environmental policies.
Introduction
Global trade is often accused of creating a more unequal world but in fact the opposite is happening. Billions of people in developing economies are catching up to the more advanced economies as millions of people in the advanced economies continue to move ahead. This global economic convergence is only possible because the world has become more open and integrated – expanding access to new markets new technologies and new models for achieving rapid sustained and inclusive growth.
Trade and inclusiveness within economies
Trade has raised aggregate welfare and reduced poverty without necessarily raising inequality in many economies but the impact of trade is more complex for individuals. People may benefit from cheaper prices larger variety and export opportunities but they may also face increased competition and may therefore either gain or lose from trade. This chapter reviews why although most people gain from trade some suffer losses. These losses can be aggravated by distortions and barriers such as mobility costs or monopolies that tend to impact more vulnerable groups disproportionately and may prevent them from adjusting to import competition and accessing export opportunities. The chapter also examines why using restrictive trade policy to redistribute gains from trade is often unsuccessful and can have unintended consequences such as retaliation by trade partners. In contrast domestic policies such as education and social protection are more effective in addressing inequality. Their importance is likely to grow as the digital revolution climate change and geopolitics continue to shape the distributional impacts of trade.
Trade and income convergence
The past quarter of a century has witnessed an unprecedented level of income convergence accompanied by the integration of many developing economies into global markets. Despite this some economies have been left behind. This chapter discusses how the participation of developing economies in global trade and investment flows can accelerate structural transformation and enhance productivity growth thereby helping lowand middle-income economies to achieve the economic growth that ensures convergence with high-income economies. The chapter also examines why some economies have taken little advantage of globalization and focuses on barriers to maximizing the gains from trade participation such as trade costs and commodity dependence. Finally the chapter discusses how recent trends in the global economy are shaping future opportunities and challenges for developing economies to leverage trade and foreign direct investment for economic growth and which policies can help to achieve convergence in the upcoming decade.
Executive summary
Never before have the living conditions and prospects of so many people changed so dramatically in the space of a few decades.
Conclusions
Over the past 30 years the world has witnessed a period of unprecedented income convergence accompanied by a steep reduction in poverty but inequality remains high.
Canada - Certaines mesures affectant l’industrie automobile
Le 31 mai 2000 l’Organe d’appel a publié son rapport sur l’affaire “Canada - Certaines mesures affectant l’industrie automobile”.
Canadá - Determinadas medidas que afectan a la industria del automóvil
El 31 de mayo de 2000 el Órgano de Apelación hizo público el informe sobre el caso “Canadá - Determinadas medidas que afectan a la industria del automóvil”.
Canada - Certain Measures Affecting the Automotive Industry
On 3 July 1998 Japan requested consultations with Canada in respect of measures being taken by Canada in the automotive industry. Japan contended that under Canadian legislation implementing an automotive products agreement (Auto Pact) between the US and Canada only a limited number of motor vehicle manufacturers are eligible to import vehicles into Canada duty free and to distribute the motor vehicles in Canada at the wholesale and retail distribution levels. Japan further contended that this duty-free treatment is contingent on two requirements: Canadian value-added (CVA) content requirement that applies to both goods and services; and manufacturing and sales requirement. Japan alleges that these measures are inconsistent with Articles I:1 III:4 and XXIV of GATT 1994 Article 2 of the TRIMs Agreement Article 3 of the SCM Agreement and Articles II VI and XVII of GATS.
The Role of Trade-Led Economic Growth in Fostering Development
The United Nations' post--2015- development agenda is taking shape. Like its predecessor the Millennium Development Goals the post--2015- agenda will reshape development policy priorities for governments and non-governmental actors alike in many cases galvanising new attention thinking and financing to tackle the priorities it identifies. This essay reviews the historical and ongoing role played by trade in sustained high growth and human development progress and makes the case that the post--2015- development agenda should include considerations related to trade rules and supply-side capacity. Given the strong links between trade-led growth economic upgrading and poverty reduction the paper argues that trade led economic growth must be prioritised in the post--2015- development agenda.
Aid for Trade, Foreign Direct Investment and Export Upgrading in Recipient Countries
This paper examines empirically whether Aid for Trade (AfT) programmes and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows affect export upgrading and if so whether their effects are complementary or substitutable. Export upgrading entails export diversification (including overall export diversification as well as diversification at the intensive and at the extensive margins) and export quality improvement. The empirical analysis shows that total AfT flows have a strong positive impact on export upgrading and that LDCs as compared to Non-LDCs are the most important beneficiaries of this positive impact. While the impact of FDI inflows on export diversification in host economies is mixed these flows do exert a strong positive impact on export quality upgrading. Furthermore the impact of FDI on export diversification is higher in LDCs than in Non-LDCs. Incidentally AfT and FDI inflows appear substitutes (in an economic theory sense) in achieving export diversification and complementary in their effect on the improvement of export quality in recipient countries including LDCs. Results obtained on the impact of components of total AfT are inconclusive as they suggest both complementarity and substitutability with respect to FDI inflows in affecting export upgrading in recipient countries. Overall empirical results suggest that AfT and FDI inflows are effective in influencing export upgrading in recipient countries. However the results also highlight the importance of the interplay between these two kinds of capital flows in affecting export development strategies and FDI policies of recipient countries notably LDCs. We can infer from this study that AfT flows appear to play a particularly important role in ensuring that FDI inflows do not lead to further export concentration by putting in place the necessary conditions for export diversification.
Competition Policy and Poverty Reduction
This paper examines the role of competition law and policy as tools for poverty reduction and development. The authors put forward five related principles building upon the important work on related issues that has been done by the OECD the International Competition Network (ICN) UNCTAD and civil society organizations such as CUTS in recent years in addition to the earlier work done on these topics in the WTO Working Group on the Interaction between Trade and Competition Policy when that body was active from 1997 through 2003. Together these principles comprise the "holistic approach" to competition law and policy which is referenced in the title of the paper: First the focus of policy makers in using competition policy as tool for poverty reduction should be on approaches that are relatively easy to implement but have a trackrecord of being effective and economically sound. Second for competition policy reforms and legislation to be successful public acceptance and support is critical and must be an essential focus of related initiatives. Third to serve as an effective tool of poverty reduction competition policy needs to address the needs of the citizens of poorer societies in their capacities as producers (and therefore as users of extensive input goods and services including public infrastructure) in addition to their capacities as final consumers/households. Fourth it is posited that "competition policy" is more than just "what competition agencies do" and includes the full spectrum of measures that governments employ to enhance competition and improve the performance of markets. Fifth in order to address the challenges posed by the changing landscape of competition policy worldwide new forms of international co-operation may need to be considered. The paper then develops the application of these principles with respect to five specific areas in which competition policy can contribute to poverty reduction namely: (i) the reform of public and business infrastructure sectors particularly in the context of developing and transition economies; (ii) the complementary roles of competition law enforcement and market liberalization in public procurement markets; (iii) various related dimensions of competition policy as they relate to public health objectives; (iv) the addressing of possible monopsonistic practices in international supply chains that may affect the ability of developing country producers to reap gains from participation in international markets; and (v) measures to address the enduring problem of international cartels which despite an impressive record of prosecutions by developed jurisdiction competition agencies over the past decade continue to impose substantial costs on developing economies. The paper concludes with some observations regarding the future of international cooperation in the competition policy sphere.
Achieving Bangladesh’s Tourism Potential
Bangladesh's international image is not as a popular tourism destination and many people might be surprised to learn it has three World Heritage sites including the Sundarbans tiger reserves. Moreover it is part of important travel circuits for cultural and religious tourism and has demonstrated potential for sports tourism. The objective of this working paper is to critically test the assertion that pro-poor "green" tourism is one of the best development options for the majority of least developed countries (LDCs) -- a challenging task in Bangladesh in the face of the country's success as an exporter of readymade garments -- by comparing tourism to the available alternatives with regard to the crucial government priorities of export diversification employment generation and the "green economy". It is well-known that Bangladesh is under strong pressure to diversify its exports to generate new employment (especially in rural areas) and to respond to critical environmental issues. The government has identified over 30 "thrust sectors" (including tourism) to help address these challenges but otherwise tourism is rarely mentioned as a major trade and development option for Bangladesh. Within the limitations of data availability this working paper reaches the conclusion that greater efforts to develop "green" tourism would be highly beneficial for facilitating rural development environmental and cultural protection gender equality and export diversification in services. The most obvious current impediments are inadequate infrastructure lack of investment and (typically election year) political conflict but behind these factors appear to be a serious lack of stakeholder coordination insufficient regulatory and administrative transparency and coherence as well as some government reluctance to relinquish greater commercial autonomy in tourism to the private sector. This paper offers extensive analysis and some suggestions to help address the impediments including the recommendation to create a Bangladesh Tourism Stakeholders Forum.
LDC Poverty Alleviation and the Doha Development Agenda
Despite being a leading export sector and source of foreign exchange for most (non-oil exporting) LDCs tourism never makes the headlines of the WTO's Doha Development Agenda negotiations. When tourism's impressive potential for poverty alleviation is considered the lack of attention is even more striking. Reasons for the apparent neglect are complex and include a lack of awareness of tourism as an export sector the fragmented nature of the industry and low political influence exaggerated concerns over "leakages" misunderstandings about poverty alleviation and tourism and the "poker playing" characteristic of trade negotiations. The evident results are missed opportunities to address services infrastructure constraints (one of the greatest impediments to increasing LDC tourism revenues and value-added) as well as a failure to address sufficiently tourism's agricultural industrial and Aid for Trade linkages. Existing national-level investment promotion objectives as well as DTIS and TPR reports can be helpful for identifying priorities for both GATS negotiations and Aid for Trade. The focus should not necessarily be on making GATS commitments but rather on ensuring that the importance of tourism for LDCs is acknowledged and acted upon. Indeed governments can always further liberalize on a unilateral basis; in the context of the DDA however they can request greater access to trading partners' markets in exchange as well as gain valuable international attention and publicity.
Thoughts on How Trade, and WTO Rules, Can Contribute to the Post-2015 Development Agenda
In September 2015 Heads of State and Government will gather in New York to agree the post-2015 development agenda. The role that trade will play in this agenda is neither clear nor agreed. Yet an open non-discriminatory rules-based multilateral trading system underpins sustainable development - a concept that lies at the core of much of the post-2015 debate to date. Indeed sustainable development is recognized as an objective in the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO). With the aim of stimulating discussion this paper asks the question of how trade and WTO rules can contribute to the post-2015 development agenda? In reply the author offers some thoughts on 10 contributions that trade and WTO rules can make to the post 2015 development agenda. The list is indicative not exhaustive. The 10 contributions highlight the complex way in which trade and trade policy interact with the evolving debate on the post-2015 development agenda - a debate which encompasses issues ranging from poverty eradication inclusive growth climate change mitigation decent work food security access to health services and sustainable development financing to name but a few of the topics under consideration. The paper organizes the 10 indicative contributions around three headings: trade rules as part of the enabling environment for the achievement of the post-2015 development agenda; the role that trade and trade policy can play in meeting specific goals (including possible Sustainable Development Goals); and the contribution that Aid for Trade can make.
Infrastructure Provision and Africa’s Trade and Development Prospects
Transitioning from the post-2008 financial meltdown to a sustained period of global growth and prosperity involves a major challenge: how to ensure the effective management of international economic interdependence. Trade growth good governance and sustainable development constitute essential ingredients to any solution as is a fairer distribution of the gains of trade. Two issues stand out in this conversation. The first concerns the unfinished business of the global fight against the scourge of poverty which impacts one region more than most: Africa. At the same time a key pre-requisite for economic performance - affordable and efficient public infrastructure and services – remains lacking in this region – notably in Sub-Saharan Africa. To address this the region itself has initiated a major long-term continent-wide infrastructure development programme which is intended to fix this problem sustainably - namely the Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA). Its success foreshadows an economic transformation that will potentially usher in an emergent Africa in the 21st century. Secondly in one area of economic activity – trade in government procurement markets - the revised WTO Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA) is emerging as a multi-dimensional tool of trade governance and development. The thesis of this paper is that GPA participation by African countries - a prospect which to date they have declined to take up - holds strong potential to reinforce the positive effects of PIDA and to contribute to the region's growth and development more generally. Developing this thesis the paper examines the possible application of the GPA to support Africa's infrastructure programme drawing on its three dimensions of instrument of governance market access instrument and 'policy space' instrument in support of the development financial and trade needs of developing countries. Based on the analysis the paper concludes that the potential benefits outweigh the potential costs of participation in the GPA by African countries and accordingly that the GPA merits consideration by the region in this regard. A successful implementation of the infrastructure programme also portends a significant expansion in the size of the African government procurement market. Were African countries to accede to the Agreement in this context it would constitute not only a big rise in membership numbers but also a significant expansion in the value of market access under the Agreement. The broad outlines of a potential win-win scenario for both African countries and GPA Parties thus begin to emerge. The paper nonetheless acknowledges that delivering these benefits would involve significant practical and political challenges. It concludes that if the challenges can be overcome and the mutual benefits delivered the revised GPA would have been demonstrated as an effective tool for balancing flexibility and reciprocity in the government procurement sector consistent with sustainable development principles with the capability to deliver win-win benefits for a broad range of stakeholders in the post-2015 era.
Developing Countries in the WTO Services Negotiations
The aim of this paper is to analyse developing countries’ participation so far in the current round of services negotiations under the Doha Development Agenda. The paper analyses developing countries’ negotiating positions as evidenced by their multilateral negotiating proposals; their initial offers; and to the extent allowed by the incomplete and sketchy information available their participation in bilateral market access negotiations. A number of basic themes are raised: the essential role of services for economic development; the high costs imposed by trade protection; the benefits of liberalization; the need to make use of the WTO forum to enhance credibility and sustain domestic regulatory reform programmes; the challenges of regulatory reform and the importance of appropriate sequencing; and the benefits arising from seeking further market access overseas in those areas where developing countries have a comparative advantage.