WTO accessions
Accession Protocols and the Private Sector
Although the private sector is not in most cases directly involved in negotiations for accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) its needs and positions are addressed through consultative mechanisms organized at the national level by WTO members. These mechanisms represent a two-way information channel: the relevant authorities can obtain the foundations to formulate and defend national negotiating positions while the private sector has an avenue to present sectoral interests as well as any relevant trade concerns. In acknowledging the influence of the private sector the objective of this chapter is to examine the existing public-private consultation mechanisms in selected WTO members as well as the evidence of private sector interests in recent reports of accession working parties. The analysis suggests that the influence of the business sector is embedded in accession protocols. Accession agreements include results obtained through trade policy consultation mechanisms which vary in the degree of formality and sophistication. Ideally the consultation and outreach mechanisms established by acceding governments to promote support for WTO accession should be strengthened throughout the WTO membership. Such mechanisms should continue to function once accessions have been completed to support the implementation of commitments set further negotiating priorities and participate in trade policy reviews and dispute settlement. The support and contributions of the private sector were instrumental to successfully achieve recent multilateral results notably the Trade Facilitation Agreement and the expansion of the Information Technology Agreement.
The structural reform implications of WTO accession
This chapter looks at the relationship between the WTO accession process and structural reforms in developing countries. It finds that developing economies that are in the process of acceding to the WTO commit to more policy reforms (proxied by prior actions in the context of the World Bank’s development policy lending) than developing countries that are already members of the WTO or that have not applied to become members. It also finds that for almost all developing economies acceding to the WTO the country risk measured by a composite indicator of political financial and economic risk called the International Country Risk Guide and the policy and institutional indicator measured by the World Bank Country Policy and Institutional Assessment significantly improve when a country achieves WTO membership compared with at the beginning of the WTO accession process.
Driving Economic Growth through Trade Policy Reforms and Investment Attraction in the Open World Economy: The Experience of China
China achieved a great leap forward in its economic development in the last thirty years supported by profound trade policy reforms significant infrastructure investment and utilization of foreign capital under the overarching state policy of reform and opening-up. Shares of manufactures and services in production have kept increasing and remarkable export performance has been scored during this period. Additions of labour and capital as well as competitive costs have largely shaped the economy’s comparative advantages up to now and they are likely to be replaced by increasing domestic consumption productivity growth and a greater reliance on services as the main factors sustaining future economic growth albeit at a slower pace. Nonetheless opening-up and domestic policy reforms going hand-in-hand will continue to play a critical role. The question that this paper addresses from China’s perspective may serve as a reference for the African economies seeking to establish a strong manufacturing base and to realise economic take-off with the help of a clear opening-up strategy and a proper trade policy toolkit.
The 2001 WTO accession of the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu: Negotiating experience – challenges, opportunities and approaches post-accession
The economy of Chinese Taipei has always been highly dependent on trade. Nevertheless its WTO accession negotiations were demanding – although the results have been significant and beneficial – involving a total of eleven formal meetings and five informal meetings for the working party and approximately 200 bilateral meetings between Chinese Taipei and thirty different WTO members. The gradual opening of Chinese Taipei’s market exposed domestic industries to global competition necessitating a process of adjustment and adaptation that has ultimately led to economic growth. For the more vulnerable industries the challenges of market liberalisation have acted as an incentive to restructure and reinvent in order to improve competitiveness. Chinese Taipei’s accession to the WTO has also been a catalyst for the globalisation and development of these industries and necessitated a process of adjustment and adaptation that has ultimately led to economic growth. The trade policies and regulations of Chinese Taipei underwent a thorough review and revision as a result of the requirements of WTO membership and this legislative overhaul has been highly beneficial in modernising the trade regime.
Contributions and lessons from WTO accessions: The present and future of the rules-based multilateral trading system
WTO accession still holds a magnetic attraction for non-members. Why is this so in spite of the challenges faced by the organisation conclusions by analysts of deadlock in the Doha Development Agenda assessments that trade policy action has shifted elsewhere to preferential trade arrangements (bilateral and regional trade agreements including more recently ‘mega-regionals’) and repeated forecasts about the WTO’s ‘irrelevance’ and ‘unravelling’? Systemically what have WTO accessions contributed to the rules-based trading system through their processes procedures best practices and results? What effects have accession negotiations had on domestic reforms in Article XII members? Are there broader lessons for the WTO? This chapter demonstrates that after the coming into force of the WTO in 1995 results from WTO accession negotiations served to update trade rules continuously (including influencing WTO jurisprudence) enlarged market access opportunities provided acceding governments with a critical multilateral instrument for legislation-based domestic reforms and supported geopolitical and geo-economic transformations from centrally planned to market-based economies the rule of law and good governance. The changes associated with these results were evident from the 1989 fall of the Berlin Wall and the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union. The evidence strongly suggests that the accession process and its results have established a legal framework for international cooperation contributed to the global economic transformation of command to market economies and provided a platform for Article XII members to implement their development and modernisation priorities. Overall the legal economic and trade policy impact from the deposited Accession Protocols and the process of accession negotiations per se have not only reinforced existing rules and raised the systemic bar with associated catalytic effect for domestic reforms but have also staked out the parameters for the future of the rules-based trading system including a future WTO work programme.
The 2008 WTO accession of Ukraine: Negotiating experience – challenges, opportunities and post-accession approaches
Ukraine embarked on its road to WTO accession in 1992 a year after it had declared its independence. Fourteen years of intense work steep learning persistence political will and flexibility were to follow. Ukraine faced many immediate challenges and tasks in strengthening its independence and creating and establishing the national institutions required by an independent state moving away from a centralised economy and reinforcing foreign policy. Ukraine had to totally eliminate its post-Soviet legacy. A new system of national government and administration had to be established. Democracy the rule of law and a free market became the guiding principles for political social and economic life. WTO accession implied increased competition which turned out to be quite painful for some companies. However the negative scenarios foreseen by some researchers did not occur; in fact the accession offered the national economy new incentives for structural and long-lasting change. However WTO membership is not simply a recipe for future happiness. While it stimulates trade and business environments members must still work within the multilateral system to keep up to date.
WTO Accession Commitments on Agriculture: Lessons for WTO Rule-Making
This chapter explains how accession negotiations have helped to further the agricultural reform process by upgrading and deepening the existing multilateral rules on trade in agriculture. It provides a broad overview of the existing multilateral disciplines in the area of agriculture as contained in the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA). Using the experience of the thirty-six concluded accessions the chapter suggests that a number of commitments such as extensive market access commitments ambitious domestic support commitments and comprehensive bindings with regard to export duties helped establish high benchmarks vis-à-vis the undertakings of the original members of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In market access the commitments of acceded members are primarily in the form of reductions in tariff bindings with a very limited use of tariff rate quotas. In domestic support the commitments of the acceded members have been negotiated based on the respective recourse to such support during a recent three-year period dependent on the timing of the individual accessions. These commitments are generally more ambitious than the corresponding commitments of the original members under the AoA which were derived based on the domestic support policy framework existing in 1986–8. Similarly in the field of export subsidies the acceded governments’ ambitious efforts to eliminate these highly distorting subsidies helped to create a strong momentum in the broader agriculture negotiations leading to the eventual agreement on the global elimination of agricultural export subsidies at the Nairobi Ministerial Conference in 2015.
Helping Businesses Navigate WTO Accession
Accessions to the World Trade Organization (WTO) have profound implications for the private sector. The market liberalization required by accession commitments must be accompanied by deep structural reforms. Even though least-developed countries (LDCs) and developing countries usually benefit from special and differential treatment the liberalization process can still lead to market adjustments that can test the status quo and require actions that will impact the private sector. This chapter discusses how the private and public sectors have cooperated to make the most of accession while mitigating its risks. The chapter concludes that the business community values predictability. Therefore acceding governments should find a way to integrate the private sector in the negotiating process. Gaining a thorough understanding of the objectives and implications of accession in particular for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is a good starting point for building a partnership between the acceding government and its private sector. The acceding government should also seek consensus with the private sector on key accession commitments on the direction of reform desired by stakeholders at the local level and allow sufficient time to prepare the private sector to adjust to the expected changes in the business environment. The experience of recently acceded governments has shown that regular engagement with the private sector before during and after accession enables new WTO members to make deeper liberalization commitments. When these commitments are the result of a consultative process between policy-makers and business the likelihood of their successful implementation is greater.
Strengthening transparency in the multilateral trading system: The contribution of the WTO accession process
What specific obligations on transparency and notifications have been negotiated as part of the terms of accession to the WTO since 1995? What patterns and trends have emerged with regard to transparency and notification requirements in WTO accessions over time? What is the implementation behaviour on notification requirements of the states or separate customs territories that have negotiated their terms of accession pursuant to Article XII of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization and joined the WTO in the period 1995 to 2013? How does the compliance of Article XII members on notification requirements under the WTO Agreements compare to the compliance behaviour of original members? By reviewing the empirical data available from more than thirty completed WTO accessions since 1995 representing about one-fifth of the WTO membership this chapter examines each of these questions assessing the extent to which the negotiated accession commitments on transparency have affected the existing transparency and notification obligations under the WTO Agreements. The results of this review suggest that the specific transparency and notification obligations resulting from accession negotiations have safeguarded and reinforced existing transparency requirements embedded across all WTO Agreements. They have also resulted in positive implementation behaviour with regard to notification requirements by WTO members that joined the WTO between 1995 and 2013 and have thus improved the compliance rate of the overall WTO membership. The number and scope of specific transparency commitments negotiated in WTO accessions underscores the importance that the WTO membership attaches to transparency one of its founding principles.
The year 2012: WTO accession of Montenegro – why did we apply to join? Priorities and results
Montenegro’s path to becoming a member of the WTO began in 1966 when the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia became party to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). However pursuant to the constitution of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in 1992 its application to continue as part of the GATT was not accepted. In 2000 the FRY re-started the process of accession to the WTO aware that WTO membership would increase its competitiveness in the international market with the acquisition of the so-called ‘WTO label’. In 2004 Montenegro decided to continue the accession process as an independent customs territory. This chapter describes the process of Montenegro’s accession up to and beyond its becoming a member of the WTO in 2012. With the country’s membership in the WTO an entirely new chapter begins in comparison to the period prior to accession negotiations. Post-accession the interest of each member is to be involved as much as possible in the activities of the WTO and to seek the scope to influence the decisions and rules that will be applied in the future.
Making Trade Multilateralism Work for All: The Role of WTO Accessions
Trade multilateralism i.e. global trade based on negotiated and agreed rules by the World Trade Organization (WTO) membership faces various challenges. Slow economic growth changes in the balance of global economic power and inequitable distribution of growth benefits have called into question the benefits of globalization and the rules-based global order. Trade has been the target of a barrage of criticism from many quarters and has become a lightning rod for policy failures weaknesses in international cooperation and the adverse effects of rapid technological advances on jobs and incomes. In this tortuous and uncertain environment concerted policy actions along several strategic axes are needed to put trade back on track and make trade multilateralism work for all once again. First trade multilateralism must be used as a tool to restart global economic growth and job creation while managing uncertainty and risks. Second a global trading system anchored in the WTO – with strong well-enforced rules that continue to adjust to promote competition and a level playing field – remains critical. Third the new realities of the twenty-first century compel an upgrade of the multilateral trading system by the building of its upper floors1 on the foundation of the existing trade rules and accumulated acquis and expertise. Such a system would preserve the fundamental set of rules at the core of the multilateral system abolish or revise obsolete rules which have not stood the test of time and adopt new rules that would reflect new realities. Fourth accessions to the WTO are arguably the most vibrant component of the multilateral trading system and have already made important contributions to each of these policy directions. The objective of this book is to draw on recent accession experiences to distil the impact of accessions on the constantly evolving architecture of the multilateral trading system.
The Accession of Kazakhstan: Dealing with Complexity
The negotiations on the accession of Kazakhstan to the World Trade Organization (WTO) concluded in 2015 were unique in the history of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the WTO. This uniqueness was reflected in: (i) the complexity of the accession due to its technical substance and geopolitical aspects; (ii) the significant expansion of market access achieved in the process which is unusual in multilateral negotiations; (iii) the resultant update of the rules in line with GATT Article XXIV related to customs unions and free trade areas; and (iv) the unprecedented involvement and dedication of Kazakhstan’s officials guided by President Nazarbayev of WTO members and the WTO Secretariat and personally of WTO Director-General Roberto Azevêdo. The negotiations were essentially a moving target as they took place at the same time as the Customs Union between Belarus Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation was evolving into the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). The critical elements of the accession were Kazakhstan’s commitments on technical barriers to trade (TBT) sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS) and on market access for goods – essentially the behind-the-border issues. Notwithstanding the complexities and the bilateral and regional mechanics of the negotiations the Kazakh case demonstrates that the WTO accession process has had practical utility even in a geopolitically challenging and technically complex environment. Accessions continue to contribute to the strategic objective of a universal membership by updating trade rules encouraging market access expansion and strengthening the rule of law. The accession of Kazakhstan thus confirms the WTO’s relevance in an ever more complex global economic and trade policy environment.
Trade Rules, Industrial Policy and Competitiveness: Implications for Africa’s Development
Industrialization is one of the cardinal priorities for economies in dynamic transformation from a commodity base to a diversified value-added development stage. In major African economies as in other economies worldwide industrial policy is resurgent and back at the centre of economic policy. The sectors in focus revolve around manufacturing textiles and clothing footwear automobiles infrastructure information technology products petrochemicals aluminium smelting agro- and cut flower industries. African economies actively applying industrial policy include Algeria Egypt Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Mozambique Nigeria Rwanda and South Africa.
The WTO Accession of Seychelles: Lessons from a Small Island Economy
Seychelles became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2015 after an accession process that took almost twenty years to complete. Since the relaunch of its accession process in 2009 Seychelles has undertaken significant trade reforms as part of a broader economic modernization agenda. These trade reforms were anchored on the reform commitments taken by the government as part of accession to the WTO. Although it is still too early to evaluate the full impact and benefits of WTO membership this chapter offers insights into the negotiation process and weighs the costs and benefits of WTO accession from the perspective of a small country. The main lessons for small economies aspiring to become WTO members are that: (i) WTO accession is a long and arduous process that makes heavy demands on a small country’s resources; (ii) small and developing countries should not expect any special treatment from larger and older members of the WTO; (iii) accession provides a good platform for modernization of a country’s trade regime; and (iv) accession can have a positive impact on a country’s ratings among rating agencies international financial institutions and private investors.
Promoting Good Governance: From Encouraging a Principle to Taking Concrete Action – Examples from WTO Accession Protocols and the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement
Long proposed in aspirational terms good governance has increasingly become a subject of substantive global policy debate and international rule-making. An analysis of recent negotiating exercises such as World Trade Organization (WTO) accession protocols and the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) shows that governance has been discussed among WTO members and embedded in WTO rules. This chapter first examines how WTO accession protocols addressed the issue of governance improvement by subjecting acceding governments to binding accession-specific commitments. These commitments in addition to ensuring greater market openness and integration in the rules-based global economy established the legal basis for the increased rule of law for acceding members. The commitments undertaken by these members demonstrate their adherence to principles of transparency and predictability of trade policies as well as their overall commitment to subject domestic trade regimes to international trade law. Improved governance is achieved through the entirety of WTO accession-specific commitments on rules including the ones on transparency policy enforcement trading rights state trading/ state-owned enterprises (STEs/SOEs) and government procurement. A similar trend can be observed when analysing the good governance provisions of the new TFA albeit with differences in their modus operandi. WTO members took a multifaceted and indirect approach seeking to improve integrity by increasing transparency strengthening due process rights and reducing space for discretionary action. Together good governance provisions in accession protocols and the TFA contribute to building the upper floors of the new multilateral trading system by creating a binding set of rules and new standards that will be respected by virtually the entire trading world.
Market access goods negotiations: Salience, results and meaning
Trade negotiations and the exchange of concessions on trade in goods have been the cornerstone of the multilateral trading system. This chapter examines the salient features results and meaning of the schedules of tariff concessions and commitments on goods of Article XII members: what they mean and what they have contributed. We find that the bilateral market access of Article XII members has shaped the landscape of tariff commitments that provide transparency and predictability to today’s merchandise trade relationships. We also found that the large number of post-2001 accessions coincided with an extended period of global growth particularly among the major emerging economies fostered by the stability of trade regimes. When we compared Article XII members with General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) members on bound tariffs we found that the comparable bound tariff rates were higher for GATT members and that a number of original members retained unbound tariff lines for non-agricultural products. Overall results from the concluded accessions have produced more liberal tariff concessions than those of original WTO members expanding the market access for WTO members’ exports. The lower barriers to trade in these Article XII members’ markets have improved economic efficiency increased competition and led to better resource reallocation.
The 2004 WTO accession of Cambodia: Negotiating priorities and experience – growth and integration eleven years later
Cambodia was the first least-developed country to complete negotiations to become a member of the WTO. Its negotiations took place in the context of the Decision on LDC accessions taken by the WTO General Council in December 2002 in which WTO members agreed that they would be bound by certain restraints in dealing with LDCs seeking to join the WTO. Given the constraints that as an LDC it faced when entering the negotiations Cambodia recognised that joining the WTO could play an important part in accelerating its growth and development. This chapter describes Cambodia’s approach to the accession negotiations: its negotiating strategy the negotiations themselves and their outcome and Cambodia’s post-accession activities. The foundation of all international trading arrangements is the WTO its concepts and its rules most of which are carried over into preferential trading arrangements. Being a member of the WTO provides a member’s traders with the transparent and predictable trading environment that they need to prosper. It can truly be said that being a WTO member is one of the main pillars of Cambodia’s successful economic performance.