Development and building trade capacity
Las nuevas normas sobre el comercio digital en América Latina: los acuerdos comerciales regionales
Aunque los recientes avances tecnológicos han propiciado el auge del comercio digital este auge se ha desarrollado sin normas claras y definidas lo que se ha convertido en un problema para los países de América Latina. Con el estancamiento del régimen multilateral de comercio han surgido acuerdos regionales y bilaterales más complejos. La reglamentación del comercio digital plantea muchas cuestiones. En este capítulo abordamos las nuevas normas sobre el comercio digital incluidas en los acuerdos comerciales regionales (ACR) que han negociado recientemente las economías latinoamericanas. En este trabajo se hace especial hincapié en la comparación del Tratado Integral y Progresista de Asociación Transpacífico (CPTPP) y el Tratado entre México Estados Unidos y Canadá (T-MEC) los ACR más avanzados en lo que respecta a estas cuestiones.
Avant-propos
Nous sommes heureux de formuler des remarques préliminaires au sujet de la présente compilation de travaux de recherche sur le commerce électronique établie par les titulaires de chaires de l’OMC par les membres du Conseil consultatif et par l’équipe du Secrétariat de l’OMC chargée du Programme de chaires (PCO).
Remerciements
Le Rapport sur le commerce mondial a été rédigé sous la supervision de Patrick Low Directeur de la Division de la recherche économique et des statistiques. Ses principaux auteurs sont Bijit Bora K. Michael Finger Marion Jansen Alexander Keck Patrick Low Hildegunn Nordas Roberta Piermartini et Robert Teh. Les données sur le commerce et les informations sur les droits de douane ont été fournies par les statisticiens de la Division de la recherche économique et des statistiques dont les travaux ont été coordonnés par Guy Karsenty Julia de Verteuil Andreas Maurer et Jürgen Richtering.
Convergence en matière de commerce électronique : les cas de l’Argentine, du Brésil et du MERCOSUR
Le commerce électronique connaît une croissance rapide en Argentine et au Brésil et dans ces deux pays la part de la population qui effectue des transactions en ligne dépasse la moyenne enregistrée pour l’ensemble de l’Amérique latine. Les deux pays ont établi un cadre juridique pour la protection des données la réglementation d’Internet la protection des consommateurs la fiscalité du commerce électronique et les contrats et signatures électroniques. L’Argentine et le Brésil ont également soumis des propositions de négociations sur le traitement des transactions effectuées en ligne par le truchement d’accords de l’OMC et ont inclus des dispositions relatives au commerce électronique dans les accords de libre-échange (ALE). Cependant les différentes approches adoptées en matière de réglementation interne du commerce électronique et les divergences de positions exprimées lors des négociations internationales sont révélatrices des différences d’approches réglementaires qui ne feront qu’accroître l’incertitude juridique et partant limiter les investissements et l’expansion du marché dans ce secteur. Il existe une seule exception qui concerne la réglementation de la protection des données puisque les deux pays suivent les principes énoncés dans le Règlement général de l’Union européenne sur la protection des données (RGPD). Le meilleur moyen d’engager de nouvelles négociations entre les deux pays concernant la convergence des réglementations en matière de commerce électronique serait de le faire sous l’égide du Marché commun du Sud (MERCOSUR).
Introduction
The United Nations least-developed countries (LDC] category comprises the poorest and most vulnerable countries in the work! - those that face structural handicaps to their sustainable development. There are currently 47 LDCs of which 33 are situated in Africa 9 in Asia 4 in the Pacific and 1 in the Caribbean. The LDCs account for 12% of the global population but for less than 2% of world’s gross domestic product (GDP) and less than 1% of global exports. So far only five LDCs have graduated from the category since its inception in 1971 i.e. Botswana (1994) Cabo Verde (2007) Maldives (2011) Samoa (2014) and Equatorial Guinea (2017).
Oportunidades y desafíos del comercio electrónico en Mauricio
En el presente estudio se analizan la situación los desafíos y las oportunidades del comercio electrónico en Mauricio. La proporción de la población que realiza compras en línea era del 14% en 2017 el segundo nivel más alto (después de Libia) en África debido en gran parte al aumento de la utilización y de la tasa de penetración de Internet unido al incremento del uso de las tarjetas de crédito y al desarrollo de sistemas seguros de pago en línea. Mauricio se colocó a la cabeza del índice de comercio electrónico de empresa a consumidor (B2C) (preparación para el comercio electrónico) de la Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre Comercio y Desarrollo (UNCTAD) para África. Una encuesta realizada a clientes puso de manifiesto altos niveles de satisfacción con las compras en línea debido a una mayor posibilidad de elección la capacidad de ahorrar tiempo la accesibilidad y la relativa facilidad para buscar productos en línea. Las principales preocupaciones incluían la inquietud sobre la divulgación de información personal y la limitada capacidad para contactar a los vendedores. Las personas encuestadas que no habían realizado compras en línea expusieron preocupaciones sobre la navegación en línea la seguridad en los pagos y los elevados costos. Los vendedores en línea se mostraron bastante optimistas con respecto al crecimiento futuro del mercado pero también expresaron su preocupación por el sesgo local en favor de las páginas web internacionales las limitaciones técnicas del servicio de Internet y el reducido tamaño del mercado. En las entrevistas llevadas a cabo con los responsables de la formulación de políticas se invocó el sólido marco jurídico y reglamentario que respalda los pagos electrónicos pero se formuló la necesidad de una cooperación más robusta con otros países en materia de reglamentación sobre el comercio electrónico y de mayores esfuerzos para recopilar estadísticas. La asistencia técnica sería útil en esta labor.
Aid for Trade and building trade capacity: The case of Morocco
The aim of this chapter is to examine the broad framework which has been evolved for the reception of Aid for Trade (AFT) in Namibia. The economic situation before this period included the prevalence of poverty the HIV/AIDS pandemic low educational opportunities and a very highly skewed or unequal distribution of the wealth of the country which has increased income inequalities and unsustainable economic growth as outlined in Namibia Vision 2030 (Namibia Office of the President 2004). In this regard Namibia shares this economic dependency at the regional level and most trade and economic relationships are mainly with Botswana Lesotho Swaziland and South Africa all of which are members of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) and Southern African Development Community (SADC). The objective is to create a free trade area in the Southern Africa region.
Understanding Supply Chain 4.0 and its potential impact on global value chains
The reorganization of supply chains using advanced technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) big data analytics and autonomous robotics is transforming the model of supply chain management from a linear one in which instructions flow from supplier to producer to distributor to consumer and back to a more integrated model in which information flows in an omnidirectional manner to the supply chain. While e-commerce is uniquely suited to many of these techniques they also hold the promise of improving efficiency in brick-and-mortar stores. These technologies are generating enormous benefits through reducing costs making production more responsive to consumer demand boosting employment (employment in supply chain sectors where such technologies are most likely to be applied has grown much more rapidly than in other supply chain sectors and in the economy as a whole) and saving consumers’ time. The impact of these technologies on the length of supply chains is uncertain: they may reduce the length of supply chains by encouraging the reshoring of manufacturing production to high-income economies thus reducing opportunities for developing countries to participate in GVCs or they may strengthen GVCs by reducing coordination and matching costs.
LDC graduation: Impact on development cooperation
This section outlines the main trends in the area of development cooperation over the most recent decade for which data are available. It provides an outline of the expected impact of graduation on several initiatives with a particular focus on Official Development Assistance (ODA) Aid for Trade (AfT) technical cooperation capacity building and participation in the UN system.
Integrating small African economies into global value chains through foreign aid: The case of Namibia
The aim of this chapter is to examine the broad framework which has been evolved for the reception of Aid for Trade (AFT) in Namibia. The economic situation before this period included the prevalence of poverty the HIV/AIDS pandemic low educational opportunities and a very highly skewed or unequal distribution of the wealth of the country which has increased income inequalities and unsustainable economic growth as outlined in Namibia Vision 2030 (Namibia Office of the President 2004). In this regard Namibia shares this economic dependency at the regional level and most trade and economic relationships are mainly with Botswana Lesotho Swaziland and South Africa all of which are members of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) and Southern African Development Community (SADC). The objective is to create a free trade area in the Southern Africa region.
El desarrollo del comercio electrónico en China y la importancia de las políticas
El valor en dólares de las transacciones de comercio electrónico en China ha aumentado enormemente durante los 20 últimos años con el apoyo de una mejora de la infraestructura el rápido crecimiento de la telefonía móvil y una mayor financiación. El mercado también se caracteriza por una mayor diversidad ejemplo de la cual son el crecimiento de los servicios médicos electrónicos la expansión del comercio electrónico transfronterizo y el aumento de las transacciones en línea/fuera de línea. El Gobierno nacional de China ha desempeñado un papel importante en el desarrollo del comercio electrónico mediante las políticas elaboradas en los planes quinquenales mientras que los Gobiernos regionales también han participado en la planificación y el ajuste del marco de políticas de comercio electrónico teniendo en cuenta las condiciones locales. *
The facilitation of trade by the rule of law: The cases of Singapore and ASEAN
Geography is unkind. This could be a result of historical accident wars or colonial boundaries but the results are the same. The classical definition of the factors of production is land labour and capital. It is a fact of life that some countries have a limited supply of all three.
WTO Accession Reforms and Competitiveness – Lessons for Africa
This chapter evaluates the impact on competitiveness of reforms undertaken by recently acceded countries and draws lessons for African countries pursuing the goal of becoming emerging economies. By comparing reform outcomes before and after accessions relative to control groups using the difference-in-difference evaluation method the chapter concludes that the recently acceded members improved their international competitiveness although the overall impact was relatively small and differed substantially across economies economic sectors and time. African economies aspiring to become emerging economies could build on the experience of recently acceded countries by designing long-term reform agendas similar to the accession reform packages locking them into a credible policy framework through a series of domestic and international agreements frontloading reforms to gain credibility and persisting in their implementation balancing short-term costs with long-term benefits and learning from Article XII peers who have gained substantial experience in managing complex reforms.
Blockchaining international trade: a way forward for women’s economic empowerment?
Blockchain technology holds considerable promise to boost women’s participation in international trade. Blockchain’s anonymity and efficiency could enable many women who otherwise would be constrained by law custom or high costs to engage in financial and business transactions. Blockchain can be used to enable women who lack identification documents to undertake transactions that otherwise would require official identification and to prove their ownership of assets without interventions from male family members. Blockchain can help micro small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) more than 30 per cent of which are owned by women to overcome costs associated with exporting and importing and interact easily with consumers other businesses engaged in the supply chain customs officers and regulatory bodies. Blockchain also can increase women farmers’ access to information on crops and market conditions thus improving their bargaining position. However if not regulated properly the expanded use of blockchain also could increase the relative return to sophisticated technology skills that men are more likely to have and increase the digital divide between men and women. The World Trade Organization (WTO) could play a key role in developing guidelines for the use of blockchain in international trade to support the efficient and inclusive adoption of blockchain technology.
Economic resilience: Dynamics of informality
Informality is associated with increased vulnerability of countries to economic shocks. At the same time informality raises the likelihood of being affected by (external) shocks. The combination of these two tendencies can create a vicious circle weakening the long-term performance of a country lowering the potential benefi ts it can derive from trade and reducing economic well-being. This chapter discusses how informal employment evolves over the cycle – differentiating among different segments of informal labour markets – and the consequences for economic resilience to shocks. It presents evidence of the extent to which informal economies increase volatility in growth performance and the frequency of extreme economic events. Moreover the chapter discusses the particular interaction between international capital fl ows and labour market informality in worsening a country’s vulnerability to shocks. It emphasizes the potentially adverse effects of offi cial development aid and international investment by multinationals within global production networks.
Aspects du commerce et des politiques commerciales
Considéré comme un moyen de réduire la dépendance des pays en développement vis-à-vis des marchés des pays développés et de diversifier les exportations du Sud au-delà des seuls produits primaires le commerce Sud-Sud est depuis longtemps encouragé. Pour l’essentiel les mécanismes mis en place en vue de favoriser la coopération entre pays en développement ont pris la forme d’arrangements sous-régionaux ou régionaux de nature souvent préférentielle. Durant les années 50 et 60 la promotion du commerce Sud-Sud s’est inscrite bien souvent dans un ensemble de mesures ancré dans une stratégie qui visait à substituer aux importations des productions nationales protégées par des obstacles au commerce élevés. Le commerce Sud-Sud a progressé par à-coups car les économies en développement alternaient alors les phases d’expansion et de repli. En dépit des efforts déployés pour promouvoir et diversifier le commerce Sud-Sud les flux de produits primaires sont restés prédominants dans la plupart de ces régions et ce commerce Sud-Sud ne représentait que 65 pour cent du commerce mondial en 1990.
African Perspectives on Trade and the WTO
Twenty-first century Africa is in a process of economic transformation but challenges remain in areas such as structural reform governance commodity pricing and geopolitics. This book looks into key questions facing the continent such as how Africa can achieve deeper integration into the rules-based multilateral trading system and the global economy. It provides a range of perspectives on the future of the multilateral trading system and Africa’s participation in global trade. It also underlines the supportive roles that can be played by multilateral and regional institutions during such a rapid and uncertain transition.
Opportunities and challenges of e-commerce in Mauritius
This study explores the status challenges and opportunities of e-commerce in Mauritius. The share of the population making online purchases was 14 per cent in 2017 the secondhighest level (after Libya) in Africa largely due to increases in internet use and penetration coupled with increased credit card usage and the development of secure online payment systems. And Mauritius topped the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) B2C E-commerce Index (e-readiness) for Africa. A survey of customers revealed high levels of satisfaction with online shopping due to wider choices the ability to save time accessibility and the relative ease of searching for products online. Major concerns included uneasiness over disclosure of personal information and limited ability to contact vendors. Respondents who have not shopped online cited concerns over navigating online payment security and high costs. Online sellers expressed considerable optimism over future market growth but also were concerned over a local bias towards international websites technical limitations of internet service and the small market size. Interviews with policymakers cited the strong legal and regulatory framework supporting electronic payments but described a need for stronger regulatory cooperation with other countries on e-commerce and more work to collect statistics. Technical assistance would be useful in these efforts.
The effect of COVID-19 on the economies of Africa
On 14 February 2020 Africa confirmed its first COVID-19 case in Egypt. To date over 1 million cases have been reported and there have been cases in every country on the continent. A study in May 2020 from the WHO Africa Regional Office posited that within the first year of the pandemic between 83000 and 190000 deaths and 5 million related hospitalizations could occur and a further 29 to 44 million people could be infected if containment measures failed (WHO Africa 2020). As of 1 December 2020 a total of 2179843 COVID-19 cases and 51915 deaths had been reported in 55 African countries. This makes up 3.5 per cent of all cases reported globally (Africa CDC 2020).
La economía y el comercio mundiales en 2013 y comienzos de 2014
En 2013 el comercio mundial de mercancías siguió creciendo a un ritmo moderado del 22% casi idéntico al incremento en el 23% del año anterior. Tanto en 2012 como en 2013 el crecimiento fue inferior al promedio del 53% de los 20 últimos años y también considerablemente inferior al promedio del 6% de los 20 años inmediatamente anteriores a la crisis de 2008-2009. El volumen del comercio mundial de mercancías siguió aumentando lentamente durante los primeros meses de 2014 a un ritmo del 21% en el primer trimestre en comparación con el mismo período de 2013. El incremento anual previsto irá en aumento a medida que la economía mundial cobra impulso a lo largo del año.
The new rules on digital trade in Latin America: regional trade agreements
While recent technological advances have supported an increase in digital trade this growth has occurred with a lack of clear and defined rules. This deficiency has become an issue for Latin American countries. With the multilateral trade regime impasse more complex regional and bilateral agreements have emerged. The formulation of digital trade regulation raises many questions. In this chapter we deal with the new rules on digital trade in regional trade agreements (RTAs) recently negotiated by Latin American economies. In this work special emphasis is given to comparing the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) and the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) the most advanced RTAs regarding these issues.
La reglamentación de los datos en los acuerdos comerciales: diferentes modelos y opciones para el futuro
“Los datos son el nuevo petróleo”. Al igual que el petróleo que impulsó la economía en el siglo pasado los datos mueven el mundo hoy en día especialmente en el caso del comercio internacional. El papel crucial que desempeñan los datos puede observarse en cada paso del proceso desde la concepción de un nuevo producto y el abastecimiento de materias primas y piezas hasta el proceso de fabricación y el transporte de los productos a través de las fronteras para que finalmente estos lleguen a las manos de los consumidores de todos los rincones del mundo.
Fundamental economic factors affecting international trade
The previous section has shown that the future of trade and economic growth depends on a range of factors. Predictions may change depending on how each of these factors develops. This section discusses how the fundamental economic factors shaping the future of international trade – namely demography investment technology energy and other natural resources transportation costs and the institutional framework – are likely to evolve in the coming years.
Openness to trade and informality
Globalization and the opening of markets in developing economies to trade is believed to have affected informal employment in these countries. This chapter summarizes the theoretical arguments for such a link and presents the relevant empirical evidence. In particular it asks the questions: What roles do trade reforms and trade expansion play in explaining changes in the share of informal employment? How does trade opening affect the relative wage of informal compared to formal workers? While the long-term allocative effects of trade opening have been extensively studied by trade economists since at least the eighteenth century the short- and medium-term impact of trade reforms on the composition of employment the wage structure and unemployment only started to attract the attention of researchers in the early 1990s (Agénor 1995). This chapter contains two parts. First a summary of theoretical approaches concerning the impact of trade on informality is provided. Second empirical studies aimed at validating different theoretical hypotheses are discussed.
Is Tunisian Trade Policy Pro-poor?
Trade liberalization policies affect the domestic economy through their impact on prices of goods and services. Consequently these policies also can affect average productivity and lead to industrial restructuring. The main goal of this research is to estimate the distributional effects of trade policy at the micro level using household survey data and to determine whether trade liberalization affected different groups of poor people differently. To our knowledge this question has not yet been addressed for Tunisia.
Résumé analytique
Le Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2013 analyse les tendances probables du commerce mondial et la manière dont les facteurs économiques sociaux et politiques présents et futurs pourraient influer sur ces tendances. Les relations ne sont pas unidirectionnelles dès lors que le commerce est à la fois la cause et l’effet de certaines évolutions.
Las cadenas de valor mundiales en la era de Internet: ¿qué oportunidades hay para África?
En el presente capítulo se analizan los efectos de Internet en las cadenas de valor mundiales (CVM) de África. En concreto analizamos qué repercusión tiene el uso de Internet en la participación progresiva y regresiva de los países africanos en las CVM. Nuestras estimaciones se basan en datos por países de la base de datos EORA de la Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre Comercio y Desarrollo (UNCTAD) sobre las CVM y en datos de empresas procedentes de la Encuesta de Empresas del Banco Mundial. Lo que queremos es verificar si el uso de Internet facilita la participación de los países y las empresas de África en las CVM. Nuestros resultados sugieren que el uso de Internet y la infraestructura de Internet son factores más importantes para la participación progresiva de las empresas y países africanos en las CVM. Nuestra conclusión es que los resultados empíricos muestran que el uso de Internet incrementa la participación en las CVM en África. Los países y empresas africanos deben mejorar la infraestructura de Internet si quieren asegurar la mejor integración posible en las CVM.
The economic dimension of trade in the SDGs
Trade can play an important role in boosting economic growth and supporting poverty reduction. The increased market access opportunities it offers can help countries create jobs improve incomes and attract investments. The SDGs put significant emphasis on the role that trade plays in promoting sustainable development and recognize the contribution that the WTO can make to the 2030 Agenda.
Trade, value chains and labor markets in advanced economies
Trade is a major source of employment. Nevertheless trade has recently been caught in the crossfire in discussions around the decline of manufacturing employment and the polarization of labor markets in advanced economies. In this chapter we examine what the academic literature has to say on the relationship between trade and labor markets with a specific focus on studies with a value chain perspective. We find that trade has only modest effects on aggregate employment and is unlikely to have been a major contributor to the decline of manufacturing. However the effects vary considerably across regions and individuals with different skill levels. This implies that policy has a central role to play in making sure that the gains from trade are shared evenly. Our findings highlight that a value chain perspective is important for assessing the impact of trade on labor markets. The emergence of value chains has strengthened linkages between sectors magnified trade’s impact on skill demand and requires novel trade statistics. Ignoring this leads to a biased view of trade and overestimates its role in the decline of manufacturing employment.
El comercio electrónico en África: cuestiones en juego y desafíos
En el presente capítulo se analiza el potencial del comercio electrónico en África. El rápido crecimiento de Internet y de la telefonía móvil junto con la adopción de innovaciones móviles que han impulsado en gran medida la inclusión financiera y fomentado el uso de los medios de pago electrónicos han sentado una sólida base para el desarrollo del comercio electrónico en el continente. Por otro lado la tasa de penetración bancaria (que sigue siendo baja) las deficiencias en las leyes y reglamentos por los que se rige el sector y su falta de armonización transfronteriza limitan el desarrollo del comercio electrónico en África. La reducción de la ciberdelincuencia el aumento de la participación en el sector financiero y el fortalecimiento del marco jurídico son indispensables para promover el comercio electrónico.
Are digital advances and inclusive growth compatible goals? Implications for trade policy in developing countries
Recent years have seen policymakers give increasing attention to two significant widespread phenomena: rising inequality (the result of uneven access to productive employment) and the quickening pace of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) or “digital era”. This chapter explores the concept of inequality and why it is important to promote more inclusive growth especially in developing countries. It also offers insights into how digital advances can serve to accelerate inclusive growth provided countries have well-informed policies regulations and institutions to drive the necessary changes. It is evident from a crosssection of the literature and the initial results from a study on the effects of digital advances on inclusive growth in Africa that digitalization and inclusive growth are ideologically compatible. The areas requiring special attention by policymakers in developing countries include: (i) the problem of data inadequacy; (ii) uneven and costly digital connectivity; and (iii) education systems that are not preparing entrepreneurs for in-demand jobs or for the workplace of the future. Two of the prerequisites for leveraging digital technologies in order to drive more inclusive growth are an effective regulatory framework and a commercial environment that is both trade- and investment-friendly.
L’économie créative numérique et le commerce : options stratégiques pour les pays en développement
Le secteur créatif est une source importante de croissance dans l’économie mondiale et le commerce des produits et services créatifs numériques a fortement augmenté ces dernières années en particulier pendant la pandémie de COVID-19. Le contenu numérique remplace les biens physiques par exemple dans les segments de la musique des livres et des jeux. Les agrégateurs numériques comme Amazon Apple Netflix Spotify TikTok et YouTube ont alimenté une croissance rapide et diversifié les recettes en mettant l’accent sur la diffusion en continu la publicité et la monétisation des données. Les recettes liées aux droits d’auteur sont également en hausse et les perceptions de redevances liées au numérique constituent le segment qui connaît la croissance la plus rapide. La participation des pays en développement au secteur semble augmenter bien que l’on dispose de peu de données sur la question. Pour tirer parti des avantages potentiels de l’économie créative numérique les pays en développement doivent soutenir une transformation : le modèle classique du créateur indépendant exerçant une activité à faible valeur ajoutée doit faire place à une approche de collaboration stratégique qui permet de relever les niveaux d’entrepreneuriat créatif et numérique. À cette fin il convient de mettre en place un cadre juridique et institutionnel plus solide pour améliorer l’exploitation des droits d’auteur et les monétiser de soutenir financièrement la commercialisation des activités créatives d’amener les pouvoirs publics à participer au soutien aux entreprises (qui prend la forme entre autres d’activités de formation d’incubateurs de laboratoires d’innovation d’incubateurs de marché et de programmes de développement de groupements et de marchés) de créer des institutions pouvant représenter les intérêts des travailleurs et des entreprises du secteur créatif et d’harmoniser les politiques publiques concernant le secteur.
Resumen
El Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2013 examina las tendencias que probablemente marcarán el comercio mundial y el modo en que podrían influir los factores económicos sociales y políticos actuales y futuros en dichas tendencias. No se trata de relaciones unidireccionales ya que el comercio es a un tiempo causa y efecto de determinados fenómenos.
Constraints faced by the poor
Analysis of the role of trade in contributing to poverty reduction needs to go beyond its impact on economic growth. As discussed in the preceding chapter economic growth will remain the key driver of poverty reduction globally and trade will continue to be a critical driver of growth. Nevertheless in the areas in which extreme poverty is now concentrated — South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa — with predicted growth more than 370 million people in these regions are likely to remain extremely poor in 2030 amounting to around 4.5 percent of the global population. Strikingly 80 percent of these extreme poor will be in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Integrating small and medium-sized enterprises into global trade flows: The case of China
In China the term “small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)” refers to “different forms of enterprises under different ownerships that are established within the territory of the People’s Republic of China that meet the social needs and create more job opportunities and comply with the industrial policies of the State”. This definition is rather more complex than that in other countries where the definition of SMEs tends to be based purely on their size. It is nevertheless the case that in China also SMEs tend to be enterprises which have fewer employers lower sales volume and lower gross assets. Most Chinese enterprises are SMEs. Indeed they account for more than 98 per cent of industry and contribute to 60 per cent of China’s GDP 75 per cent of its industrial value-added output and 50 per cent of its revenue (as of June 2012). Chinese SMEs also provide for 75 per cent of China’s urban employment opportunities and absorb more than 50 per cent of the workers laid off from the state-owned enterprises. They employ more than 70 per cent of the new entrants to the labour market (Jianjun 2006). Hence Chinese SMEs play an important role in China’s economic development due to their contribution to GDP and the employment they create as well as their vigorous creative ability.
Les nouvelles règles sur le commerce numérique en Amérique latine : les accords commerciaux régionaux
Bien que les progrès technologiques récents aient été favorables à l’essor du commerce numérique cette croissance s’est produite en l’absence de règles claires et précises. Cette lacune est devenue problématique pour les pays d’Amérique latine. Des accords régionaux et bilatéraux plus complexes ont fait leur apparition face à l’impasse dans laquelle se trouve le régime commercial multilatéral. L’élaboration d’une réglementation du commerce numérique soulève de nombreuses questions. Dans le présent chapitre nous examinons les nouvelles règles sur le commerce numérique qui figurent dans les accords commerciaux régionaux (ACR) récemment négociés par les économies d’Amérique latine. Nous nous sommes particulièrement attachés dans ce cadre à comparer l’Accord de partenariat transpacifique global et progressiste (PTPGP) et l’Accord Canada–États-Unis–Mexique (ACEUM) – les deux ACR les plus avancés concernant ces questions.
Aid for Trade
Launched during the 2005 WTO Ministerial Conference which was held in Hong Kong China the WTO-led Aid for Trade initiative aims to help developing countries particularly LDCs build the supply-side capacity and trade-related infrastructure that they need to implement and benefit from WTO agreements and more broadly to expand their trade. The Aid for Trade Global Review which usually takes place biennially provides a platform to examine how developing countries and in particular LDCs can better utilize market access opportunities through targeted Aid for Trade; how this aid is assisting their integration into the global economy; how development partners are helping in this process; and above all the effectiveness of this support.
Introduction and Overview
This volume the work of more than twenty authors grew out of the Fourth China Round Table and the WTO’s Tenth Ministerial Conference two seminal events held back-to-back in Nairobi Kenya in December 2015. The work presented here provides comprehensive substantive insights of the African trade policy and development context in which these two meetings took place.